Atropine

Atropine sulfate ophthalmic solution should not be used in anyone who has demonstrated a previous hypersensitivity or known allergic reaction to any ingredient of the formulation because it may recur.

Photophobia and blurred vision due to pupil unresponsiveness and cycloplegia may last up to 2 weeks.

Elevations in blood pressure from systemic absorption has been reported following conjunctival instillation of recommended doses of atropine sulfate ophthalmic solution, USP 1%.

Eye pain and stinging occurs upon instillation of atropine sulfate ophthalmic solution. Other commonly occurring adverse reactions include, blurred vision, photophobia, superficial keratitis and decreased lacrimation. Allergic reactions such as papillary conjunctivitis, contact dermatitis, and lid edema may also occur less commonly.

Systemic effects of atropine are related to its anti-muscarinic activity. Systemic adverse events reported include dryness of skin, mouth, and throat from decreased secretions from mucus membranes; restlessness, irritability or delirium from stimulation of the central nervous system; tachycardia; flushed skin of the face and neck.

The use of atropine and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI) is generally not recommended because of the potential to precipitate hypertensive crisis.

Traces of atropine have been found in human milk following administration of atropine solution for injection. Because some systemic absorption occurs from topical administration, caution should be exercised when Atropine Sulfate Ophthalmic Solution, USP 1% is administered to a nursing woman.

Due to the potential for systemic absorption of atropine sulfate ophthalmic solution, the use of atropine sulfate ophthalmic solution, USP 1% in children under the age of 3 months is not recommended and the use in children under 3 years of age should be limited to no more than one drop per eye per day.

No overall differences in safety and effectiveness have been observed between elderly and younger adult patients.

Atropine is a reversible antagonist of muscarine-like actions of acetyl-choline and is therefore classified as an antimuscarinic agent. Atropine is relatively selective for muscarinic receptors. Its potency at nicotinic receptors is much lower, and actions at non-muscarinic receptors are generally undetectable clinically. Atropine does not distinguish among the M1, M2, and M3 subgroups of muscarinic receptors.

The pupillary constrictor muscle depends on muscarinic cholinoceptor activation. This activation is blocked by topical atropine resulting in unopposed sympathetic dilator activity and mydriasis. Atropine also weakens the contraction of the ciliary muscle, or cycloplegia. Cycloplegia results in loss of the ability to accommodate such that the eye cannot focus for near vision.

The onset of action after administration of atropine sulfate ophthalmic solution, USP 1%, is usually within 40 minutes with maximal effect being reached in about 2 hours. The effect can last for up to 2 weeks in a normal eye.

The bioavailability of atropine sulfate ophthalmic solution, USP 1% was assessed in six healthy subjects, 24 to 29 years of age. Subjects received either 0.3 mg atropine sulfate administered as bolus intravenous injection or 0.3 mg administered as 30 μl instilled unilaterally in the cul-de-sac of the eye. Plasma l-hyoscyamine concentrations were determined over selected intervals up to eight hours after dose administration.

The mean bioavailability of topically applied atropine was 63.5 ± 29% (range 19 to 95%) with large inter-individual differences. Mean maximum observed plasma concentration for the ophthalmic solution was 288 ± 73 pg/mL. Maximum concentration was reached in 28 ± 27 min after administration. Terminal half-life of l-hyoscamine was not affected by route of administration and was calculated to be 3 ± 1.2 hours (intravenous) and 2.5 ± 0.8 hours (topical ophthalmic).

In another placebo-controlled study, the systemic exposure to 1-hyoscyamine, and the anti-cholinergic effects of atropine were investigated in eight ocular surgery patients 56 to 66 years of age, following single topical ocular 0.4 mg atropine dose (given as 40 microliters of atropine sulfate ophthalmic solution, USP 1%). The mean (± standard deviation (SD)) C_max of l-hyoscyamine in these patients was 860 ± 402 pg/mL, achieved within 8 minutes of eyedrop instillation.

Following intravenous administration, the mean (± SD) elimination half-life (t_1/2) of atropine was reported to be longer in pediatric subjects under 2 years (6.9 ± 3.3 hours) and in geriatric patients 65 to 75 years (10.0 ± 7.3 hours), compared to in children over 2 years (2.5 ± 1.2 hours) and in adults 16 to 58 years (3.0 ± 0.9 hours). (See 8.4 Pedriatic Use).

Atropine is destroyed by enzymatic hydrolysis, particularly in the liver; from 13 to 50% is excreted unchanged in the urine. Traces are found in various secretions, including milk. The major metabolites of atropine are noratropine, atropin-n-oxide, tropine, and tropic acid. Atropine readily crosses the placental barrier and enters the fetal circulation, but is not found in amniotic fluid.

Atropine binds poorly (about 44%) to plasma protein, mainly to alpha-1 acid glycoprotein; age has no effect on the serum protein binding of atropine. Atropine binding to α-1 acid glycoprotein was concentration dependent (2 to 20 mcg/mL) and nonlinear in vitro and in vivo. There is no gender effect on the pharmacokinetics of atropine administered by injection.

Atropine sulfate was negative in the salmonella/microsome mutagenicity test. Studies to evaluate carcinogenicity and impairment of fertility have not been conducted.